Editing Bangladesh


Bangladesh, officially called the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, is a country located in South Asia. It is the eighth most populous nation in the world and also one of the most densely populated, with more than 171 million people living in an area of about '''148,460 square kilometres 57,320 sq mi'''. The country is bordered by India on the north, west, and east, and by Myanmar (Burma) on the southeast. Its southern boundary touches the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is close to Bhutan and Nepal, separated by the narrow Siliguri Corridor, and China lies beyond India’s state of Sikkim to the north. The capital and largest city is Dhaka, which serves as the center of politics, business, and culture. Chittagong is the second-largest city and the country’s main seaport. The area that is now '''Bangladesh''' has a long and rich history. In ancient times, it was home to powerful '''Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms'''. After the '''Muslim conquest of 1204''', the region came under '''Sultanate''' and later '''Mughal''' control. During the Mughal era, especially under '''Bengal Subah''', the region became famous for its '''economic prosperity''', flourishing '''textile trade''', and fertile '''agriculture''', making it one of the wealthiest provinces of the empire. The '''Battle of Plassey''' in '''1757''' marked the start of '''British colonial rule''', which lasted for about two centuries. When '''British India was partitioned in 1947''', the eastern part of Bengal became '''East Bengal''', the most populous region of '''Pakistan''', and was later renamed '''East Pakistan'''. After more than twenty years of political discrimination and systemic inequality under the '''West Pakistan–dominated government''', tensions in '''East Pakistan''' escalated into a '''civil war in 1971''', eventually transforming into a '''war of independence'''. The '''Mukti Bahini''', with crucial support from '''India''', launched a successful armed struggle. Despite the '''genocide''' carried out by Pakistani forces, '''Bangladesh achieved independence on 16 December 1971'''.In the years following independence, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became the nation’s first leader but was '''assassinated in 1975'''. Power later shifted to '''Ziaur Rahman''', who was also '''killed in 1981'''. The '''1980s''' were marked by the '''authoritarian rule of Hussain Muhammad Ershad''', which ended after a '''mass uprising in 1990'''. Democracy was restored in '''1991''', and for the next thirty years, national politics was shaped by the rivalry between Khaleda Zia and '''Sheikh Hasina''', often referred to as the '''Battle of the Begums.''' In '''August 2024''', a '''student-led mass movement''' forced '''Hasina from power''', and an '''interim government''' headed by '''Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus''' took control.
=== Etymology ===
The name '''Bangladesh''', which translates to ''Land of Bengal,'' has its roots in the early 20th century. The word was popularized through '''Bengali patriotic songs''', including ''Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy'' by '''Rabindranath Tagore''' in '''1905''' and ''“Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo”'' by '''Kazi Nazrul Islam''' in '''1932'''. In the '''1950s''', Bengali nationalists began using the term more widely during political movements in what was then '''East Pakistan'''. The word '''Bangla''' is an ancient and widely used name referring to both the '''Bengal region''' and the Bengali language. Its exact origin is uncertain. Some historians believe it comes from a '''Bronze Age proto-Dravidian tribe''', while others trace it back to the '''Vanga Kingdom''' of the Iron Age. The '''earliest recorded use''' of “Bangla” dates to '''805 AD''' on the '''Nesari plate'''. The phrase '''Vangala Desa''' (meaning land of Vangala”) also appears in 11th-century South Indian inscriptions.

The term gained '''official recognition''' during the '''Sultanate of Bengal''' in the 14th century, when '''Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah''' declared himself the first '''“Shah of Bangala''' in '''1342'''. Over time, '''Bangāl''' became the most common name for the area during the Islamic period. According to Abu’l-Fazl ibn Mubarak’s ''Ain-i-Akbari'', the suffix '''al''' was linked to the ancient practice of local rulers raising '''mounds of earth''' (called ''al'') in the lowlands. This explanation is also supported by '''Ghulam Husain Salim’s''' ''Riyaz-us-Salatin''. The suffix '''desh''' comes from the '''Sanskrit''' word ''deśha'', meaning '''land''' or '''country.''' Combining '''Bangla''' with '''desh''' gives '''Bangladesh,''' which literally means '''Land of Bengal.'''

=== Early History of Bangladesh ===
The region that is now '''Bangladesh''' has a long and layered history, shaped by a series of powerful kingdoms and empires. The earliest major political power to control this territory was the '''Maurya Empire''' (c. 320–185 BCE). Under the rule of '''Emperor Ashoka''', the Mauryas extended their influence into Bengal, integrating the region into one of the largest and most centralized empires of ancient India. This era saw the spread of administrative systems, trade networks, and early Buddhist teachings, laying the foundation for the region’s cultural and economic development. After the Maurya Empire declined, Bengal saw the rise of several smaller kingdoms, among which '''Samatata''' became particularly significant. Located in what is now southeastern Bangladesh, Samatata emerged as a '''tributary state''' of the '''Gupta Empire''' c. 319–540 CE. During the Gupta period, Bengal enjoyed relative stability and cultural growth. '''Harsha''' (r. 606–647 CE), a powerful ruler of northern India, later incorporated Samatata into his loosely governed realm. This era was marked by religious tolerance and the flourishing of Buddhism, Hinduism, and early forms of local culture.

One of the most influential periods in the early history of Bengal came with the rise of the '''Pala Empire''' in the mid-8th century. The Palas, who ruled from around '''750 to 1150 CE''', established a '''Buddhist dynasty''' that transformed the region into a major '''center of learning and culture'''. Their rule is often considered a '''golden age''' for Bengal. Great monastic universities like '''Somapura Mahavihara''' became renowned across Asia, attracting scholars from distant lands. The Pala rulers maintained extensive diplomatic and trade relations with regions such as Tibet, Southeast Asia, and even China. By the 12th century, however, Pala power declined, paving the way for the '''Sena dynasty''', a Hindu kingdom that ruled much of Bengal. The Senas introduced new administrative systems and promoted '''Hindu religious traditions''', especially Vaishnavism. Their capital was established in Nabadwip, and their rule represented the last major '''Hindu dynasty''' in Bengal before the arrival of Muslim conquerors. In '''1204 CE''', the Sena dynasty fell to the forces of '''Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji''', a general of the '''Ghurid dynasty''' from Central Asia. His swift conquest marked the beginning of '''Islamic rule''' in Bengal, ushering in a new era of political, cultural, and religious transformation that would shape the region for centuries to come.

=== Medieval Period of Bengal ===
The '''medieval era''' of Bengal began with its incorporation into the '''Delhi Sultanate''' in '''1206 CE''', marking the start of Islamic political rule in the region. Over time, Bengal developed a distinct identity within the Sultanate’s expanding territory. In '''1341''', '''Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah''' declared the '''independence of Bengal''', founding the '''Bengal Sultanate''', which soon became a major power in eastern India. The sultanate experienced '''rapid territorial expansion''', strengthening its political and economic base. Its '''strategic location''', fertile land, and thriving trade turned Bengal into a hub of '''commercial activity''', attracting merchants from '''China''', the '''Middle East''', and '''Europe'''. Foreign travelers often described it as '''one of the richest regions in the world''' to trade with. Bengal exported fine textiles, including its world-famous muslin, along with silk, spices, and other goods.

In '''1576''', the '''Mughal Empire''' conquered Bengal, transforming it into the '''Bengal Subah''', one of the empire’s most prosperous provinces. By the '''18th century''', it was recognized as the '''wealthiest region''' in the Mughal realm and was famously called the '''“Paradise of Countries”''' and the '''“breadbasket of India.”''' The area’s agricultural productivity, skilled artisanship, and vibrant trade contributed to a high standard of living for its population. With the '''decline of Mughal authority''' in the early 1700s, Bengal evolved into a '''semi-independent state''' under the '''Nawabs of Bengal''', beginning with '''Murshid Quli Khan''', the first Nawab. This period was marked by political autonomy, continued economic prosperity, and active international trade. However, internal power struggles and growing European colonial interests set the stage for the '''British East India Company’s''' later dominance.

=== As Part of Pakistan ===
After nearly two centuries of British colonial rule, the '''partition of India on 15 August 1947''' created two new states: '''India''' and '''Pakistan'''. Bengal was divided along the '''Radcliffe Line''', with '''East Bengal''' becoming the eastern and most populous part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and West Bengal remaining with India. East and West Pakistan were separated by more than 1,000 miles, creating serious geographical and economic challenges from the beginning. Khawaja Nazimuddin became East Bengal’s first chief minister, and Frederick Chalmers Bourne served as governor. In 1949, the '''All Pakistan Awami Muslim League''' was formed, and in 1950, the East Bengal Legislative Assembly passed land reforms that abolished the '''Permanent Settlement''' and the '''zamindari''' system. The party was later renamed the '''Awami League''' in 1953 to adopt a more secular and inclusive identity. The '''United Front coalition''' defeated the ruling Muslim League in the 1954 elections, reflecting growing political consciousness in East Bengal. In 1955, East Bengal was renamed '''East Pakistan''' as part of Pakistan’s “One Unit” program. Despite its population and economic contributions, East Pakistan remained politically and economically marginalized. Rising Tensions and Bengali Nationalism

Cultural and linguistic discrimination deepened the divide. In 1952, the Pakistani government violently suppressed the '''Bengali Language Movement''', which demanded that Bengali be recognized as an official language alongside Urdu. This event became a powerful symbol of '''Bengali identity and resistance'''. A new constitution was adopted in 1956, but political instability continued. In 1958, the military, led by General Ayub Khan, imposed martial law and established a dictatorship. A presidential system replaced the parliamentary system in 1962. That same year, '''Dhaka''' became the seat of the National Assembly, an attempt to ease Bengali dissatisfaction. In 1966, '''Sheikh Mujibur Rahman''', leader of the Awami League, launched the '''Six-Point Movement''', demanding autonomy and a federal parliamentary system. Bengalis were '''severely underrepresented''' in the civil service and military, while Bengali literature and music were censored.

Although East Pakistan generated around '''70% of Pakistan’s export earnings''' through jute and tea, it received significantly less investment and development funds. Economists such as '''Rehman Sobhan''' and '''Nurul Islam''' highlighted this inequality through the '''Two-Economies Theory''', showing the existence of two unequal economies within one country. Road to Liberation In 1969, mass protests and the '''Agartala Conspiracy Case''' (in which Mujibur Rahman was arrested) triggered Ayub Khan’s resignation. General '''Yahya Khan''' took power and imposed martial law once again. In '''1970''', a devastating cyclone killed around '''500,000 people''' in East Pakistan, and the central government was heavily criticized for its slow and inadequate response, further fueling resentment.

The '''1970 general election''' became a turning point: the Awami League won 167 out of 169 seats from East Pakistan, gaining a parliamentary majority. However, the Pakistani military and the '''Pakistan Peoples Party''' led by '''Zulfikar Ali Bhutto''' opposed transferring power. On '''7 March 1971''', Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gave a historic speech calling for non-cooperation, effectively launching a civil disobedience movement. In response, the Pakistani military began '''Operation Searchlight''' on 25 March 1971, a brutal crackdown on civilians. On '''26 March 1971''', Mujibur Rahman declared the '''independence of Bangladesh''', marking the beginning of the Bangladesh Liberation War. The conflict lasted nine months and resulted in a '''genocide and mass atrocities'''. On '''16 December 1971''', Pakistani forces '''surrendered''', and Bangladesh emerged as an '''independent, sovereign nation'''.

=== Independent Bangladesh ===
Bangladesh adopted its '''Constitution on 4 November 1972''', laying the foundation for a parliamentary democracy with secularism, nationalism, socialism, and democracy as its core principles. Mujibur Rahman Era (1972–1975) After independence, the government of '''Sheikh Mujibur Rahman''' faced major challenges such as war-torn infrastructure, food shortages, and a weak economy. Mismanagement, widespread corruption, and political unrest destabilized the country. Mujib attempted to introduce a '''one-party socialist system''', but his popularity declined sharply. A '''devastating famine in 1974''' worsened the situation. On '''15 August 1975''', Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was assassinated in a military coup. Return to Parliamentary Democracy (1991–2008)

Democracy was restored in 1991. Power alternated between '''Khaleda Zia''' BNP and '''Sheikh Hasina''' Awami League for decades. This period is often called the '''Battle of the Begums.''' While the country made progress in development and governance reforms, political instability and corruption remained persistent problems. Sheikh Hasina’s Long Rule 2009–2024The Awami League returned to power with a '''landslide victory in the 2008 elections'''. Under '''Sheikh Hasina''', Bangladesh experienced rapid '''economic growth''' and '''infrastructure expansion''', but also '''democratic backsliding''', '''increasing authoritarianism''', and '''widespread corruption'''.

Sheikh Hasina won three more consecutive elections in '''2014, 2018, and 2024''', all widely criticized as neither free nor fair. Massive '''student-led protests''' in 2024 forced her to '''resign and flee to India''' on '''5 August 2024'''. An '''interim government''' was formed on '''8 August 2024''', led by '''Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus''' as Chief Adviser. Economic Growth and Development Since the 1980s, economic liberalization and free-market policies have turned Bangladesh into one of the fastest-growing economies in the '''world'''. The '''textile and garment sector''', the second-largest globally, has been a major growth driver.

* Bangladesh is now the '''second-largest economy in South Asia'''.
* Poverty rates fell from '''80% in 1971''' to '''18.7% in 2022'''.
* Its '''Human Development Index''' grew rapidly, second only to China in the 21st century.
* It became a global leader in green manufacturing, hosting the world’s largest number of certified green factories.

=== Geography ===
Bangladesh is located in '''South Asia''', along the northern coast of the '''Bay of Bengal'''. It is almost completely surrounded by '''India''', sharing only a small border with '''Myanmar''' in the southeast. Although it does not directly border '''Nepal''', '''Bhutan''', or '''China''', the country lies very close to them. Geographically, Bangladesh is divided into three main regions. The largest portion of the country is covered by the '''Ganges Delta''', which is the biggest river delta in the world and one of the most fertile regions on Earth. The '''Madhupur''' and '''Barind Plateaus''' occupy parts of the northwest and central areas, while the '''northeast and southeast''' are home to evergreen hill ranges and rolling hills. Bangladesh is often called the '''“Land of Rivers”''' because it has more than '''57 trans-boundary rivers''', more than any other country in the world. The Ganges (known locally as Padma), the Brahmaputra Jamuna, and the Meghna Rivers meet to form this vast delta system before flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Being downstream of India, the sharing and management of river water often involves '''political complexities'''.

The country’s landscape is mostly '''low and flat''', with most areas less than '''12 meters (39 feet)''' above sea level. Because of this low elevation, a '''one-meter rise in sea level''' could flood around '''10% of the country'''. About '''12% of Bangladesh''' is made up of hill systems, and the '''haor wetlands''' in the northeast are globally significant for environmental research and biodiversity. The '''highest point in the country''' is '''Saka Haphong''', with an elevation of 1,064 meters (3,491 feet), located near the Myanmar border. In the past, '''Keokradong''' or '''Tazing Dong''' were mistakenly considered the highest peaks. '''Forest cover''' in Bangladesh is around '''14%''' of the total land area. In 2020, the country had about 1.88 million hectares of forest, with most of it naturally regenerating and a smaller portion made up of planted forest. No primary forests were recorded, but around '''33% of the forest area''' falls within protected zones. Nearly all forest land is under '''public ownership'''.

=== Climate ===
Bangladesh lies '''along the Tropic of Cancer''', giving it a '''tropical climate''' characterized by three distinct seasons: a '''mild winter''' from October to March, a '''hot and humid summer''' from March to June, and a '''rainy monsoon season''' from June to October. The country has never recorded a temperature below 0 °C (32 °F); the lowest temperature ever recorded was '''1.1 °C (34 °F)''' in '''Dinajpur''' on 3 February 1905. The monsoon brings the majority of the country’s rainfall, which plays a crucial role in agriculture but also contributes to annual natural disasters. Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to '''natural calamities''', including floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores, which occur almost every year. These disasters are often intensified by environmental issues such as deforestation, soil erosion, and land degradation. Among the most catastrophic events were the '''cyclones of 1970 and 1991''', with the latter killing about '''140,000 people'''. In September 1998, the country experienced its '''worst flood in modern history''', submerging nearly '''two-thirds of the land''' and resulting in over 1,000 deaths.

Over time, national and international disaster risk reduction initiatives have helped reduce the '''human and economic toll''' of such events. However, severe disasters still occur. For example, during the '''2007 South Asian floods''', approximately '''five million people''' were displaced and '''around 500 people''' lost their lives. These challenges are worsened by '''climate change''', which continues to increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events across the country.

=== Climate Change ===
Bangladesh is considered '''one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world'''. Over the past century, '''508 cyclones''' have struck the Bay of Bengal region, and about '''17%''' of them have made landfall in Bangladesh. Rising '''sea levels''', increased '''rainfall''', and more frequent and intense '''tropical cyclones''' pose serious threats to the country’s agriculture, food and water security, human health, and housing. According to estimates, a '''three-foot rise in sea level by 2050''' could submerge nearly '''20% of the country’s land''' and '''displace over 30 million people''', making climate-induced migration a major national and regional concern. To address these growing threats, Bangladesh has launched the '''Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100''', a long-term strategy designed to protect the country’s land, people, and economy from the impacts of climate change.

=== Biodiversity ===
Bangladesh is situated within the '''Indomalayan realm''' and contains four major terrestrial ecoregions the '''Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests''', '''Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests''', '''Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests''', and '''Sundarbans mangroves'''. The country’s ecology is diverse, featuring a long coastline, countless rivers and tributaries, wetlands, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, hill forests, freshwater swamps, and fertile alluvial plains. Its lush vegetation includes groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut, and date palm trees. Bangladesh is home to around '''6,000 plant species''', including about '''5,000 flowering plants''', with water lilies and lotuses blooming beautifully during the monsoon. The country also has '''50 wildlife sanctuaries''', reflecting its rich natural heritage. A significant portion of Bangladesh’s biodiversity is concentrated in the '''Sundarbans''', the world’s largest '''mangrove forest''', covering '''6,000 km²''' in the southwest. This UNESCO World Heritage Site is divided into three protected zones  South, East, and West  and serves as a crucial habitat for many species. Other notable ecosystems include the '''haor wetlands''' in Sylhet, tropical and subtropical forests, the evergreen and semi-evergreen hills of Chittagong, and the plainland '''Sal forests''' of central Bangladesh. '''St. Martin’s Island''' hosts the country’s only coral reef.

Bangladesh supports abundant wildlife across its '''forests, wetlands, woodlands, and hills''', covering a habitat area of about '''150,000 km²'''. Iconic species in the Sundarbans include the '''Bengal tiger''', '''clouded leopard''', '''saltwater crocodile''', '''black panther''', and '''fishing cat'''. The northern and eastern regions provide habitats for the '''Asian elephant''', '''hoolock gibbon''', '''Asian black bear''', and '''oriental pied hornbill''', while '''chital deer''' are common in the southwest. Other notable species include black giant squirrels, capped langurs, Bengal foxes, sambar deer, king cobras, pythons, mongooses, pangolins, and water monitors. Bangladesh also has one of the '''largest populations of Irrawaddy and Ganges river dolphins'''. In total, the country is home to '''53 species of amphibians''', '''139 reptiles''', '''19 marine reptiles''', '''5 marine mammals''', and '''628 species of birds'''. Some species, such as the '''one-horned and two-horned rhinoceros''' and the '''common peafowl''', have become extinct in Bangladesh over the past century. While urbanization has concentrated human populations in cities, helping to limit some deforestation, '''rapid development has threatened many natural habitats'''. Environmental issues such as '''industrial river pollution''' notably in the Dhaleshwari River and '''shrimp farming in the Chakaria Sundarbans''' have been described as '''ecocides'''. In response, Bangladesh has introduced several conservation measures. The Bangladesh Environment '''Conservation Act of 1995''' and the designation of Ecologically Critical Areas aim to protect wetlands, forests, and rivers. The '''Sundarbans Tiger Project''' and the '''Bangladesh Bear Project''' are key wildlife protection initiatives. Bangladesh ratified the '''Rio Convention on Biological Diversity''' on '''3 May 1994''' and continues to update its '''National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan''' to strengthen conservation efforts.